Complex Regional Pain Syndrome Classification, Damage, Mechanisms, and Treatment: A Narrative Review
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Abstract
Complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS), previously known as reflex sympathetic dystrophy syndrome, is a situation specified by persistent regional pain. The aberrant functioning of the neurological system is believed to be the root cause of an exaggerated reactivity to pain signals that are unable to switch off the sensation of pain. It is characterized by such symptoms as swelling, alterations in the color of the skin and tissues, along with edema. Although it most commonly affects the limbs, such as the arm, leg, hand, or foot, these symptoms can manifest themselves in any part of the body. The existence or nonexistence of nerve injury is used to classify patients into one of two subgroups, I or II, when referring to this illness. Since many medical professionals are unfamiliar with the diagnosis of CRPS and its etiology is not fully elucidated, the condition is frequently incorrectly diagnosed. The treatments available for CRPS focus on alleviating symptoms, regaining organ function, and cosseting a person's quality of life, despite the fact that no cure for the condition has been identified.
[1] Harden RN, Bruehl S, Perez RS, Birklein F, Marinus J, Maihofner C, et al. Validation of proposed diagnostic criteria (the “Budapest Criteria”) for complex regional pain syndrome. Pain. 2010; 150(2):268-74.
[2] Iolascon G, Tarantino U. Rare diseases in orthopedics: algodystrophy and aseptic osteonecrosis. Clin Cases Miner Bone Metab. 2015; 12(Suppl 1):2.
[3] Bruehl S. Complex regional pain syndrome. Bmj. 2015; 351.
[4] van Rijn MA, Marinus J, Putter H, Bosselaar SR, Moseley GL, van Hilten JJ. Spreading of complex regional pain syndrome: not a random process. J Neural Transm (Vienna). 2011; 118(9):1301-9.
[5] Iolascon G, de Sire A, Moretti A, Gimigliano F. Complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS) type I: historical perspective and critical issues. Clin Cases Miner Bone Metab. 2015; 12(Suppl 1):4.
[6] Michael d‘A SH. CRPS: what’s in a name? Taxonomy, epidemiology, neurologic, immune and autoimmune considerations. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2019; 44(3):376-87.
[7] Barke A, Korwisi B, Jakob R, Konstanjsek N, Rief W, Treede RD. Classification of chronic pain for the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11): results of the 2017 international World Health Organization field testing. Pain. 2022; 163(2):e310.
[8] Harden RN, Bruehl S, Galer BS, Saltz S, Bertram M, Backonja M, et al. Complex regional pain syndrome: are the IASP diagnostic criteria valid and sufficiently comprehensive?. Pain. 1999; 83(2):211-9.
[9] Pappagallo M, Rosenberg AD. Epidemiology, pathophysiology, and management of complex regional pain syndrome. Pain Practice. 2001; 1(1):11-20.
[10] Ratti C, Nordio A, Resmini G, Murena L. Post-traumatic complex regional pain syndrome: clinical features and epidemiology. Clin Cases Miner Bone Metab. 2015; 12(Suppl 1):11.
[11] Bharwani KD, Dik WA, Dirckx M, Huygen FJ. Highlighting the role of biomarkers of inflammation in the diagnosis and management of complex regional pain syndrome. Mol Diagn Ther. 2019; 23(5):615-26.
[12] Bean DJ, Johnson MH, Heiss‐Dunlop W, Kydd RR. Extent of recovery in the first 12 months of complex regional pain syndrome type‐1: A prospective study. Eur J Pain. 2016; 20(6):884-94.
[13] Bean DJ, Johnson MH, Kydd RR. The outcome of complex regional pain syndrome type 1: a systematic review. J Pain. 2014; 15(7):677-90.
[14] Schwartzman RJ, Erwin KL, Alexander GM. The natural history of complex regional pain syndrome. Clin J Pain. 2009 May 1;25(4):273-80.
[15] Weissmann R, Uziel Y. Pediatric complex regional pain syndrome: a review. Pediatr Rheumatol Online J. 2016; 14(1):1-0.
[16] Birklein F, O'Neill D, Schlereth T. Complex regional pain syndrome: an optimistic perspective. Neurology. 2015; 84(1):89-96.
[17] Van Velzen GA, Rombouts SA, Van Buchem MA, Marinus J, Van Hilten JJ. Is the brain of complex regional pain syndrome patients truly different?. European Journal of Pain. 2016; 20(10):1622-33.
[18] Harden RN, Oaklander AL, Burton AW, Perez RS, Richardson K, Swan M, et al. Complex regional pain syndrome: practical diagnostic and treatment guidelines. Pain Med. 2013; 14(2):180-229.
[19] Birklein F, Schlereth T. Complex regional pain syndrome—significant progress in understanding. Pain. 2015; 156:S94-103.
[20] Goebel A, Turner-Stokes LF. Complex regional pain syndrome in adults: UK guidelines for diagnosis, referral and management in primary and secondary care.2018.
[21] Stanton-Hicks M, Jänig W, Hassenbusch SA, Haddox JD, Boas R, Wilson P. Reflex sympathetic dystrophy: changing concepts and taxonomy. Pain. 1995; 63(1):127-33.
[22] Duman I, Dincer U, Taskaynatan MA, Cakar E, Tugcu I, Dincer K. Reflex sympathetic dystrophy: a retrospective epidemiological study of 168 patients. Clin Rheumatol. 2007; 26(9):1433-7.
[23] Bruehl S, Maihöfner C, Stanton-Hicks M, Perez RS, Vatine JJ, Brunner F, et al. Complex regional pain syndrome: evidence for warm and cold subtypes in a large prospective clinical sample. Pain. 2016; 157(8):1674-81.
[24] Birklein F, Schmelz M. Neuropeptides, neurogenic inflammation and complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS). Neuroscience letters. 2008; 437(3):199-202.
[25] Choi JH, Yu KP, Yoon YS, Kim ES, Jeon JH. Relationship between HbA1c and complex regional pain syndrome in stroke patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Ann Rehabil Med. 2016; 40(5):779-85.
[26] Dirckx M, Stronks DL, VAN BODEGRAVEN‐HOF EA, Wesseldijk F, Groeneweg JG, Huygen FJ. Inflammation in cold complex regional pain syndrome. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2015; 59(6):733-9.
[27] Bellingham GA, Smith RS, Morley-Forster P, Murkin JM. Use of near infrared spectroscopy to detect impaired tissue oxygen saturation in patients with complex regional pain syndrome type 1. Can J Anaesth. 2014; 61(6):563-70.
[28] Goebel A, Blaes F. Complex regional pain syndrome, prototype of a novel kind of autoimmune disease. Autoimmun Rev. 2013; 12(6):682-6.
[29] Reichenberger ER, Alexander GM, Perreault MJ, Russell JA, Schwartzman RJ, Hershberg U, et al. Establishing a relationship between bacteria in the human gut and complex regional pain syndrome. Brain Behav Immun. 2013; 29:62-9.
[30] Hall JM, Brain SD. Pharmacology of calcitonin gene-related peptide. Neurogenic inflammation. Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC. 1996; 101-4.
[31] Holzer P. Neurogenic vasodilatation and plasma leakage in the skin. General Pharmacology: The Vascular System. 1998; 30(1):5-11.
[32] Weber M, Birklein F, Neundörfer B, Schmelz M. Facilitated neurogenic inflammation in complex regional pain syndrome. Pain. 2001; 91(3):251-7.
[33] Littlejohn G. Neurogenic neuroinflammation in fibromyalgia and complex regional pain syndrome. Nat Rev Rheumatol. 2015; 11(11):639-48.
[34] Jeon SY, Seo S, Lee JS, Choi SH, Lee DH, Jung YH, et al. [11C]-(R)-PK11195 positron emission tomography in patients with complex regional pain syndrome: A pilot study. Medicine. 2017; 96(1):e5735.
[35] Jung YH, Kim H, Jeon SY, Kwon JM, Lee WJ, Kim YC, et al. Brain metabolites and peripheral biomarkers associated with neuroinflammation in complex regional pain syndrome using [11C]-(R)-PK11195 positron emission tomography and magnetic resonance spectroscopy: a pilot study. Pain Medicine. 2019; 20(3):504-14.
[36] Ji RR, Nackley A, Huh Y, Terrando N, Maixner W. Neuroinflammation and central sensitization in chronic and widespread pain. Anesthesiology. 2018; 129(2):343-66.
[37] Xanthos DN, Sandkühler J. Neurogenic neuroinflammation: inflammatory CNS reactions in response to neuronal activity. Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 2014; 15(1):43-53.
[38] Woolf CJ. Central sensitization: implications for the diagnosis and treatment of pain. pain. 2011; 152(3):S2-15.
[39] Reimer M, Rempe T, Diedrichs C, Baron R, Gierthmühlen J. Sensitization of the nociceptive system in complex regional pain syndrome. PLoS One. 2016; 11(5):e0154553.
[40] Bruehl S. An update on the pathophysiology of complex regional pain syndrome. Anesthesiology. 2010; 113(3):713-25.
[41] Veldman PH, Reynen HM, Arntz IE, Goris RJ. Signs and symptoms of reflex sympathetic dystrophy: prospective study of 829 patients. The Lancet. 1993; 342(8878):1012-6.
[42] Ribbers GM, Oosterhuis WP, van Limbeek J, de Metz M. Reflex sympathetic dystrophy: is the immune system involved?. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1998; 79(12):1549-52.
[43] Schinkel C, Gaertner A, Zaspel J, Zedler S, Faist E, Schuermann M. Inflammatory mediators are altered in the acute phase of posttraumatic complex regional pain syndrome. Clin J Pain. 2006; 22(3):235-9.
[44] Blair SJ, Chinthagada M, Hoppenstehdt D, Kijowski R, Fareed J. Role of neuropeptides in pathogenesis of reflex sympathetic dystrophy. Acta Orthop Belg. 1998; 64(4):448-51.
[45] Birklein F, Schmelz M, Schifter SA, Weber M. The important role of neuropeptides in complex regional pain syndrome. Neurology. 2001; 57(12):2179-84.
[46] König S, Schlereth T, Birklein F. Molecular signature of complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS) and its analysis. Expert Rev Proteomics. 2017; 14(10):857-67.
[47] Shokouhi M, Clarke C, Morley-Forster P, Moulin DE, Davis KD, Lawrence KS. Structural and functional brain changes at early and late stages of complex regional pain syndrome. J Pain. 2018; 19(2):146-57.
[48] Baliki MN, Schnitzer TJ, Bauer WR, Apkarian AV. Brain morphological signatures for chronic pain. PloS one. 2011; 6(10):e26010.
[49] Baliki MN, Mansour AR, Baria AT, Apkarian AV. Functional reorganization of the default mode network across chronic pain conditions. PloS one. 2014; 9(9):e106133.
[50] Becerra L, Sava S, Simons LE, Drosos AM, Sethna N, Berde C, et al. Intrinsic brain networks normalize with treatment in pediatric complex regional pain syndrome. NeuroImage: Clinical. 2014; 6:347-69.
[51] Barad MJ, Ueno T, Younger J, Chatterjee N, Mackey S. Complex regional pain syndrome is associated with structural abnormalities in pain-related regions of the human brain. J Pain. 2014; 15(2):197-203.
[52] Geha PY, Baliki MN, Harden RN, Bauer WR, Parrish TB, Apkarian AV. The brain in chronic CRPS pain: abnormal gray-white matter interactions in emotional and autonomic regions. Neuron. 2008; 60(4):570-81.
[53] Fukumoto M, Ushida T, Zinchuk VS, Yamamoto H, Yoshida S. Contralateral thalamic perfusion in patients with reflex sympathetic dystrophy syndrome. The Lancet. 1999; 354(9192):1790-1.
[54] Breivik H, Stubhaug A. Importance of early diagnosis of complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS-1 and CRPS-2): Delayed diagnosis of CRPS is a major problem. Scand J Pain. 2016; 11(1):49-51.
[55] Wertli MM, Brunner F, Steurer J, Held U. Usefulness of bone scintigraphy for the diagnosis of Complex Regional Pain Syndrome 1: A systematic review and Bayesian meta-analysis. PloS one. 2017; 12(3):e0173688.
[56] Van Zundert J, Patijn J, Hartrick C, Lataster A, Huygen F, Mekhail N, et al. Evidence-based interventional pain medicine: according to clinical diagnoses. Pain Pract. 2011; 11(5):423-9.
[57] Lunden LK, Kleggetveit IP, Jørum E. Delayed diagnosis and worsening of pain following orthopedic surgery in patients with complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS). Scand J Pain. 2016;11(1):27-33.
[58] Harden RN, Bruehl S, Stanton-Hicks M, Wilson PR. Proposed new diagnostic criteria for complex regional pain syndrome. Pain medicine. 2007; 8(4):326-31.
[59] Cappello ZJ, Kasdan ML, Louis DS. Meta-analysis of imaging techniques for the diagnosis of complex regional pain syndrome type I. J Hand Surg Am. 2012; 37(2):288-96.
[60] Thor JA, Mohamed Hanapi NH, Halil H, Suhaimi A. Perineural injection therapy in the management of complex regional pain syndrome: a sweet solution to pain. Pain Medicine. 2017; 18(10):2041-5.
[61] Reeves KD, Lyftogt J. Prolotherapy: regenerative injection therapy. Pain Management. Philadelphia, PA, Elsevier. 2007 Jan 1:1106-27.
[62] Geppetti P, Holzer P. Neurogenic inflammation. Crc Press; 1996.
[63] Sharma A, Williams K, Raja SN. Advances in treatment of complex regional pain syndrome: recent insights on a perplexing disease. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 2006; 19(5):566-72.
[64] Kim WO, Yoon KB, Kil HK, Yoon DM. Chemical lumbar sympathetic block in the treatment of plantar hyperhidrosis: a study of 69 patients. Dermatol Surg. 2008; 34(10):1340-5.
[65] Chen S. Clinical uses of botulinum neurotoxins: current indications, limitations and future developments. Toxins. 2012; 4(10):913-39.
[66] Javed S, Abdi S. Use of anticonvulsants and antidepressants for treatment of complex regional pain syndrome: a literature review. Pain Management. 2021; 11(2):189-99.
[67] Tran DQ, Duong S, Bertini P, Finlayson RJ. Treatment of complex regional pain syndrome: a review of the evidence. Can J Anaesth. 2010; 57(2):149-66.
[68] Perez RS, Zollinger PE, Dijkstra PU, Thomassen-Hilgersom IL, Zuurmond WW, Rosenbrand KC, et al. Evidence based guidelines for complex regional pain syndrome type 1. BMC neurology. 2010; 10(1):1-4.
[69] Mackey S, Feinberg S. Pharmacologic therapies for complex regional pain syndrome. Curr Pain Headache Rep. 2007; 11(1):38-43.
[70] Harke H, Gretenkort P, Ladleif HU, Rahman S, Harke O. The response of neuropathic pain and pain in complex regional pain syndrome I to carbamazepine and sustained-release morphine in patients pretreated with spinal cord stimulation: a double-blinded randomized study. The response of neuropathic pain and pain in complex regional pain syndrome I to carbamazepine and sustained-release morphine in patients pretreated with spinal cord stimulation: a double-blinded randomized study. 2001; 92(2):488-95.
[2] Iolascon G, Tarantino U. Rare diseases in orthopedics: algodystrophy and aseptic osteonecrosis. Clin Cases Miner Bone Metab. 2015; 12(Suppl 1):2.
[3] Bruehl S. Complex regional pain syndrome. Bmj. 2015; 351.
[4] van Rijn MA, Marinus J, Putter H, Bosselaar SR, Moseley GL, van Hilten JJ. Spreading of complex regional pain syndrome: not a random process. J Neural Transm (Vienna). 2011; 118(9):1301-9.
[5] Iolascon G, de Sire A, Moretti A, Gimigliano F. Complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS) type I: historical perspective and critical issues. Clin Cases Miner Bone Metab. 2015; 12(Suppl 1):4.
[6] Michael d‘A SH. CRPS: what’s in a name? Taxonomy, epidemiology, neurologic, immune and autoimmune considerations. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2019; 44(3):376-87.
[7] Barke A, Korwisi B, Jakob R, Konstanjsek N, Rief W, Treede RD. Classification of chronic pain for the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11): results of the 2017 international World Health Organization field testing. Pain. 2022; 163(2):e310.
[8] Harden RN, Bruehl S, Galer BS, Saltz S, Bertram M, Backonja M, et al. Complex regional pain syndrome: are the IASP diagnostic criteria valid and sufficiently comprehensive?. Pain. 1999; 83(2):211-9.
[9] Pappagallo M, Rosenberg AD. Epidemiology, pathophysiology, and management of complex regional pain syndrome. Pain Practice. 2001; 1(1):11-20.
[10] Ratti C, Nordio A, Resmini G, Murena L. Post-traumatic complex regional pain syndrome: clinical features and epidemiology. Clin Cases Miner Bone Metab. 2015; 12(Suppl 1):11.
[11] Bharwani KD, Dik WA, Dirckx M, Huygen FJ. Highlighting the role of biomarkers of inflammation in the diagnosis and management of complex regional pain syndrome. Mol Diagn Ther. 2019; 23(5):615-26.
[12] Bean DJ, Johnson MH, Heiss‐Dunlop W, Kydd RR. Extent of recovery in the first 12 months of complex regional pain syndrome type‐1: A prospective study. Eur J Pain. 2016; 20(6):884-94.
[13] Bean DJ, Johnson MH, Kydd RR. The outcome of complex regional pain syndrome type 1: a systematic review. J Pain. 2014; 15(7):677-90.
[14] Schwartzman RJ, Erwin KL, Alexander GM. The natural history of complex regional pain syndrome. Clin J Pain. 2009 May 1;25(4):273-80.
[15] Weissmann R, Uziel Y. Pediatric complex regional pain syndrome: a review. Pediatr Rheumatol Online J. 2016; 14(1):1-0.
[16] Birklein F, O'Neill D, Schlereth T. Complex regional pain syndrome: an optimistic perspective. Neurology. 2015; 84(1):89-96.
[17] Van Velzen GA, Rombouts SA, Van Buchem MA, Marinus J, Van Hilten JJ. Is the brain of complex regional pain syndrome patients truly different?. European Journal of Pain. 2016; 20(10):1622-33.
[18] Harden RN, Oaklander AL, Burton AW, Perez RS, Richardson K, Swan M, et al. Complex regional pain syndrome: practical diagnostic and treatment guidelines. Pain Med. 2013; 14(2):180-229.
[19] Birklein F, Schlereth T. Complex regional pain syndrome—significant progress in understanding. Pain. 2015; 156:S94-103.
[20] Goebel A, Turner-Stokes LF. Complex regional pain syndrome in adults: UK guidelines for diagnosis, referral and management in primary and secondary care.2018.
[21] Stanton-Hicks M, Jänig W, Hassenbusch SA, Haddox JD, Boas R, Wilson P. Reflex sympathetic dystrophy: changing concepts and taxonomy. Pain. 1995; 63(1):127-33.
[22] Duman I, Dincer U, Taskaynatan MA, Cakar E, Tugcu I, Dincer K. Reflex sympathetic dystrophy: a retrospective epidemiological study of 168 patients. Clin Rheumatol. 2007; 26(9):1433-7.
[23] Bruehl S, Maihöfner C, Stanton-Hicks M, Perez RS, Vatine JJ, Brunner F, et al. Complex regional pain syndrome: evidence for warm and cold subtypes in a large prospective clinical sample. Pain. 2016; 157(8):1674-81.
[24] Birklein F, Schmelz M. Neuropeptides, neurogenic inflammation and complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS). Neuroscience letters. 2008; 437(3):199-202.
[25] Choi JH, Yu KP, Yoon YS, Kim ES, Jeon JH. Relationship between HbA1c and complex regional pain syndrome in stroke patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Ann Rehabil Med. 2016; 40(5):779-85.
[26] Dirckx M, Stronks DL, VAN BODEGRAVEN‐HOF EA, Wesseldijk F, Groeneweg JG, Huygen FJ. Inflammation in cold complex regional pain syndrome. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2015; 59(6):733-9.
[27] Bellingham GA, Smith RS, Morley-Forster P, Murkin JM. Use of near infrared spectroscopy to detect impaired tissue oxygen saturation in patients with complex regional pain syndrome type 1. Can J Anaesth. 2014; 61(6):563-70.
[28] Goebel A, Blaes F. Complex regional pain syndrome, prototype of a novel kind of autoimmune disease. Autoimmun Rev. 2013; 12(6):682-6.
[29] Reichenberger ER, Alexander GM, Perreault MJ, Russell JA, Schwartzman RJ, Hershberg U, et al. Establishing a relationship between bacteria in the human gut and complex regional pain syndrome. Brain Behav Immun. 2013; 29:62-9.
[30] Hall JM, Brain SD. Pharmacology of calcitonin gene-related peptide. Neurogenic inflammation. Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC. 1996; 101-4.
[31] Holzer P. Neurogenic vasodilatation and plasma leakage in the skin. General Pharmacology: The Vascular System. 1998; 30(1):5-11.
[32] Weber M, Birklein F, Neundörfer B, Schmelz M. Facilitated neurogenic inflammation in complex regional pain syndrome. Pain. 2001; 91(3):251-7.
[33] Littlejohn G. Neurogenic neuroinflammation in fibromyalgia and complex regional pain syndrome. Nat Rev Rheumatol. 2015; 11(11):639-48.
[34] Jeon SY, Seo S, Lee JS, Choi SH, Lee DH, Jung YH, et al. [11C]-(R)-PK11195 positron emission tomography in patients with complex regional pain syndrome: A pilot study. Medicine. 2017; 96(1):e5735.
[35] Jung YH, Kim H, Jeon SY, Kwon JM, Lee WJ, Kim YC, et al. Brain metabolites and peripheral biomarkers associated with neuroinflammation in complex regional pain syndrome using [11C]-(R)-PK11195 positron emission tomography and magnetic resonance spectroscopy: a pilot study. Pain Medicine. 2019; 20(3):504-14.
[36] Ji RR, Nackley A, Huh Y, Terrando N, Maixner W. Neuroinflammation and central sensitization in chronic and widespread pain. Anesthesiology. 2018; 129(2):343-66.
[37] Xanthos DN, Sandkühler J. Neurogenic neuroinflammation: inflammatory CNS reactions in response to neuronal activity. Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 2014; 15(1):43-53.
[38] Woolf CJ. Central sensitization: implications for the diagnosis and treatment of pain. pain. 2011; 152(3):S2-15.
[39] Reimer M, Rempe T, Diedrichs C, Baron R, Gierthmühlen J. Sensitization of the nociceptive system in complex regional pain syndrome. PLoS One. 2016; 11(5):e0154553.
[40] Bruehl S. An update on the pathophysiology of complex regional pain syndrome. Anesthesiology. 2010; 113(3):713-25.
[41] Veldman PH, Reynen HM, Arntz IE, Goris RJ. Signs and symptoms of reflex sympathetic dystrophy: prospective study of 829 patients. The Lancet. 1993; 342(8878):1012-6.
[42] Ribbers GM, Oosterhuis WP, van Limbeek J, de Metz M. Reflex sympathetic dystrophy: is the immune system involved?. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1998; 79(12):1549-52.
[43] Schinkel C, Gaertner A, Zaspel J, Zedler S, Faist E, Schuermann M. Inflammatory mediators are altered in the acute phase of posttraumatic complex regional pain syndrome. Clin J Pain. 2006; 22(3):235-9.
[44] Blair SJ, Chinthagada M, Hoppenstehdt D, Kijowski R, Fareed J. Role of neuropeptides in pathogenesis of reflex sympathetic dystrophy. Acta Orthop Belg. 1998; 64(4):448-51.
[45] Birklein F, Schmelz M, Schifter SA, Weber M. The important role of neuropeptides in complex regional pain syndrome. Neurology. 2001; 57(12):2179-84.
[46] König S, Schlereth T, Birklein F. Molecular signature of complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS) and its analysis. Expert Rev Proteomics. 2017; 14(10):857-67.
[47] Shokouhi M, Clarke C, Morley-Forster P, Moulin DE, Davis KD, Lawrence KS. Structural and functional brain changes at early and late stages of complex regional pain syndrome. J Pain. 2018; 19(2):146-57.
[48] Baliki MN, Schnitzer TJ, Bauer WR, Apkarian AV. Brain morphological signatures for chronic pain. PloS one. 2011; 6(10):e26010.
[49] Baliki MN, Mansour AR, Baria AT, Apkarian AV. Functional reorganization of the default mode network across chronic pain conditions. PloS one. 2014; 9(9):e106133.
[50] Becerra L, Sava S, Simons LE, Drosos AM, Sethna N, Berde C, et al. Intrinsic brain networks normalize with treatment in pediatric complex regional pain syndrome. NeuroImage: Clinical. 2014; 6:347-69.
[51] Barad MJ, Ueno T, Younger J, Chatterjee N, Mackey S. Complex regional pain syndrome is associated with structural abnormalities in pain-related regions of the human brain. J Pain. 2014; 15(2):197-203.
[52] Geha PY, Baliki MN, Harden RN, Bauer WR, Parrish TB, Apkarian AV. The brain in chronic CRPS pain: abnormal gray-white matter interactions in emotional and autonomic regions. Neuron. 2008; 60(4):570-81.
[53] Fukumoto M, Ushida T, Zinchuk VS, Yamamoto H, Yoshida S. Contralateral thalamic perfusion in patients with reflex sympathetic dystrophy syndrome. The Lancet. 1999; 354(9192):1790-1.
[54] Breivik H, Stubhaug A. Importance of early diagnosis of complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS-1 and CRPS-2): Delayed diagnosis of CRPS is a major problem. Scand J Pain. 2016; 11(1):49-51.
[55] Wertli MM, Brunner F, Steurer J, Held U. Usefulness of bone scintigraphy for the diagnosis of Complex Regional Pain Syndrome 1: A systematic review and Bayesian meta-analysis. PloS one. 2017; 12(3):e0173688.
[56] Van Zundert J, Patijn J, Hartrick C, Lataster A, Huygen F, Mekhail N, et al. Evidence-based interventional pain medicine: according to clinical diagnoses. Pain Pract. 2011; 11(5):423-9.
[57] Lunden LK, Kleggetveit IP, Jørum E. Delayed diagnosis and worsening of pain following orthopedic surgery in patients with complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS). Scand J Pain. 2016;11(1):27-33.
[58] Harden RN, Bruehl S, Stanton-Hicks M, Wilson PR. Proposed new diagnostic criteria for complex regional pain syndrome. Pain medicine. 2007; 8(4):326-31.
[59] Cappello ZJ, Kasdan ML, Louis DS. Meta-analysis of imaging techniques for the diagnosis of complex regional pain syndrome type I. J Hand Surg Am. 2012; 37(2):288-96.
[60] Thor JA, Mohamed Hanapi NH, Halil H, Suhaimi A. Perineural injection therapy in the management of complex regional pain syndrome: a sweet solution to pain. Pain Medicine. 2017; 18(10):2041-5.
[61] Reeves KD, Lyftogt J. Prolotherapy: regenerative injection therapy. Pain Management. Philadelphia, PA, Elsevier. 2007 Jan 1:1106-27.
[62] Geppetti P, Holzer P. Neurogenic inflammation. Crc Press; 1996.
[63] Sharma A, Williams K, Raja SN. Advances in treatment of complex regional pain syndrome: recent insights on a perplexing disease. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 2006; 19(5):566-72.
[64] Kim WO, Yoon KB, Kil HK, Yoon DM. Chemical lumbar sympathetic block in the treatment of plantar hyperhidrosis: a study of 69 patients. Dermatol Surg. 2008; 34(10):1340-5.
[65] Chen S. Clinical uses of botulinum neurotoxins: current indications, limitations and future developments. Toxins. 2012; 4(10):913-39.
[66] Javed S, Abdi S. Use of anticonvulsants and antidepressants for treatment of complex regional pain syndrome: a literature review. Pain Management. 2021; 11(2):189-99.
[67] Tran DQ, Duong S, Bertini P, Finlayson RJ. Treatment of complex regional pain syndrome: a review of the evidence. Can J Anaesth. 2010; 57(2):149-66.
[68] Perez RS, Zollinger PE, Dijkstra PU, Thomassen-Hilgersom IL, Zuurmond WW, Rosenbrand KC, et al. Evidence based guidelines for complex regional pain syndrome type 1. BMC neurology. 2010; 10(1):1-4.
[69] Mackey S, Feinberg S. Pharmacologic therapies for complex regional pain syndrome. Curr Pain Headache Rep. 2007; 11(1):38-43.
[70] Harke H, Gretenkort P, Ladleif HU, Rahman S, Harke O. The response of neuropathic pain and pain in complex regional pain syndrome I to carbamazepine and sustained-release morphine in patients pretreated with spinal cord stimulation: a double-blinded randomized study. The response of neuropathic pain and pain in complex regional pain syndrome I to carbamazepine and sustained-release morphine in patients pretreated with spinal cord stimulation: a double-blinded randomized study. 2001; 92(2):488-95.
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| Issue | Vol 9 No Supp. 1 (2023): Supplement 1 |
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| Section | Review Article(s) | |
| DOI | https://doi.org/10.18502/aacc.v9i5.13966 | |
| Keywords | ||
| Budapest Criteria Complex Regional Pain Syndromes Pain Reflex Sympathetic Dystrophy | ||
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How to Cite
1.
Haghighat-Shoar SM, Mokaram Dori M, Farzaneh AF. Complex Regional Pain Syndrome Classification, Damage, Mechanisms, and Treatment: A Narrative Review. Arch Anesth & Crit Care. 2023;9(Supp. 1):450-456.
